The Warrior Queen: The Legendary Life of Fu Hao

Today, we’ll talk about the life of China’s first female general in recorded Chinese history as well as her relationship with her husband King Wu Ding in the Shang Dynasty during the second millennium BCE.

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The Warrior Queen: The Legendary Life of Fu Hao

Today, we’ll talk about the life of China’s first female general in recorded Chinese history as well as her relationship with her husband King Wu Ding in the Shang Dynasty during the second millennium BCE.

On February 26, 2024, the new museum of the Yin Ruins was opened to the public. It is located on the Huan River in Anyang, central China’s Henan Province, facing the Yinxu Temple Palace across the river on the opposite bank. It is the first major national archaeological museum to fully showcase the Shang civilization.

With nearly 4,000 sets of cultural relics, such as bronzes, pottery, jade, and oracle bones, the exhibition features a large and diverse collection, more than three-quarters of which is being unveiled for the first time.

The Yin Ruins are a spiritual symbol of the Chinese nation. They represent the site of the first capital from the late Shang Dynasty, also known as Yin Dynasty, which lasted from 1600 to 1046 BCE, in Chinese history to have a textual record, verified by archaeological excavations and oracle bone inscriptions. The Yin Ruins also hold the record for being the site of an ancient capital with the highest frequency and longest duration of archaeological excavations in China, earning a reputation as the cradle of modern Chinese archaeology.

The various bronze artifacts unearthed from the Yin Ruins are exquisitely crafted with delicate patterns, making them rare artistic treasures. The advanced smelting technology of the Yin was unparalleled globally at the time, showcasing the highly developed metallurgical skills of the Shang Dynasty.

Bronze artifacts were symbols of power, wealth, and status among the royal family of the Shang Dynasty. Many sets of bronze objects were unearthed from the burial sites at the Yin Ruins. The type and quantity of these items usually indicate the social status of the tomb’s occupants. In addition to bronze ritual vessels, bronze weapons were naturally the primary armaments used by the Shang Dynasty to consolidate and expand their power through warfare.

A number of exhibits at the new museum of the Yin Ruins were unearthed from the Fu Hao Tomb. Among the bronze artifacts discovered, many were inscribed with the characters “Fu Hao.” Remarkably, even a weapon bore the name “Fu Hao.” Scholars have determined through research that this refers to the name of the wife of King Wu Ding, who is mentioned over 200 times in oracle bone inscriptions.

“Women hold up half of the sky,” echoes a well-known Chinese proverb, serving as a poignant reminder of the pivotal role women play in a world often perceived as dominated by men.

The emergence of numerous women generals in Chinese history stands as a powerful testament to the saying. Notable examples include Xian Ying, who, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties in the 5th and 6th centuries, successfully reunified the southernmost province of Hainan with the mainland of China. During the Tang Dynasty, which lasted from 618 to 907, Princess Pingyang led a troop of women, aiding her father and brothers in combating the armies of the Sui Dynasty, contributing significantly to the establishment of the Tang Dynasty. Qin Liangyu, meanwhile, commanded an army to defend the declining Ming Dynasty against the invasion of the Manchu forces.

Nevertheless, the achievements of these women pale in comparison to the trailblazing Fu Hao of the Shang Dynasty, recognized as the first female general in recorded Chinese history. Yet, Fu Hao’s role extended beyond that of a mere general.

However, when delving into the story of Fu Hao, it is crucial to introduce her husband, Wu Ding, first. The Records of the Grand Historian, penned by the renowned historian Sima Qian, emphasizes Wu’s excellent governance, noting that he “governed with virtue, and the people were joyous; he led the rejuvenation of the Shang Dynasty.”

This commentary encapsulates the achievements of King Wu’s 59-year reign. When Wu ascended the throne, the Shang Dynasty had already persisted for more than 300 years. In the few decades before Wu became king, Shang was marred by ineffective leadership and internal strife, coupled with external pressure from frequent invasions by tribes. Wu, intimately familiar with the struggles of the common people, displayed courage by appointing Fu Shuo, a former slave, as his prime minister. Governing with diligence, Wu orchestrated the revival of the crumbling Shang Dynasty, spearheading what came to be known as the “Wu Ding Renaissance” and prolonging the dynasty’s existence by over 100 years.

Historical records reveal that Wu maintained more than 60 concubines, but only three held the official status of principal wives: Bi Wu, Bi Xin, and Bi Gui – Bi Xin being Fu Hao. Despite occupying the second position beneath Bi Wu, Fu Hao’s accomplishments surpassed those of her two rivals. Significantly, the oracle bones of the Yin ruins feature over 200 inscriptions about Fu Hao, a number that eclipses the records of the remaining principal wives.

Sacrifices and wars defined the 500-year span of the Shang Dynasty, and Fu Hao distinguished herself in both the imperial court and on the battlefield, making substantial contributions in both arenas.

Due to a fear of the unknown and a limited understanding of the natural world, the people of Shang were deeply superstitious. From kings to slaves, everyone participated in the worship of gods and ancestors. National affairs and daily decisions were frequently determined through divination and seeking guidance from spirits. Priests played a crucial role as intermediaries between the people and the spiritual realm, possessing the perceived ability to connect with the divine. As a result, they held a high status and, to some extent, became decision-makers in state affairs.

Fu Hao occupied the esteemed position of a priestess, as is evidenced by records detailing her crucial role in collecting and offering oracle bones, which were important tools to make prayers and communicate with gods. Additionally, she presided over various rituals, encompassing the making of offerings to the heavens, ceremonies honoring ancestors, and prayers for rain. These responsibilities underscore Fu Hao’s substantial political standing during the reign of her husband.

However, Fu Hao is renowned primarily for her military exploits, recognized as China’s first documented female military commander – an undeniable pioneer. Abundant records extol Fu Hao’s command of troops on the battlefield, where she achieved notable victories over approximately 20 small states.

Fu Hao played a pivotal role in one of the largest military campaigns of the Shang Dynasty, as indicated by the oracle bones. These inscriptions reveal that Fu Hao personally led 3,000 soldiers, likely her direct forces, and summoned an additional 10,000 troops, possibly through local and temporary conscription. This amassed a formidable force to engage in a decisive battle against the Qiang tribe. This military operation was exceptionally massive, considering that the typical Shang Dynasty army comprised only 3,000 to 5,000 soldiers. Some estimates even propose that the 13,000 troops led by Fu Hao represented more than half of the Shang Dynasty’s national forces at that time. In this significant engagement, Fu Hao emerged victorious against the Qiang.

Fu Hao’s military acumen is underscored by her participation in one of the earliest recorded examples of a battlefield ambush. Historical records indicate that, during a confrontation with the state of Ba, Fu Hao shrewdly orchestrated an ambush, skillfully blocking the enemy’s retreat. As Wu launched an attack from the east, the unsuspecting enemy found itself ensnared in Fu Hao’s strategically devised trap.

Fu Hao held a distinguished military rank, evident in an oracle bone inscription where Wu sought divine guidance, inquiring whether Fu Hao, leading an army to the front, would receive heaven’s blessing. Zhi, a renowned military commander under Wu, along with another general named Hou Gao, consistently adhered to Fu Hao’s commands during military campaigns. This underscores Fu Hao’s substantial military standing and remarkable achievements.

The bond between Fu Hao and Wu was exceptionally strong, with historical records offering ample evidence of their affectionate relationship. Each time Fu Hao returned triumphantly from a military expedition, Wu’s joy was evident as he eagerly ventured outside the city to welcome her. On one occasion, he went to great lengths, welcoming her from a distance of more than 80 kilometers. The palpable excitement of their reunion was evident, as the couple, disregarding their entourage, left their subordinates behind and rode side by side, galloping off together.

In their daily lives, Wu’s care for Fu Hao was meticulous. Oracle divinations frequently featured Wu inquiring about Fu Hao’s health and fertility, demonstrating his attentive concern for her well-being.

“Fu Hao has a toothache; can it be cured?”

“Fu Hao has a nasal polyp; what’s the matter?”

“Fu Hao is feeling discomfort in her stomach; what should be done?”

“Is Fu Hao pregnant?”

These detailed inquiries reflect Wu’s deep devotion to his wife, portraying him as a caring and doting husband.

As Wu’s final queen, Fu Hao bore three children. She passed away in her 30s, and the cause of her death remains subject to various interpretations, including illness, childbirth complications, or even perishing in battle. While Fu Hao’s lifespan wasn’t considered short for her era, her departure was relatively early, especially when compared to Wu’s disputed age of seventy to eighty.

Following Fu Hao’s death, Wu mourned her deeply. In an unconventional gesture, he opted to bury Fu Hao near the palace instead of at the imperial cemetery. While unorthodox, the decision is clear when considering the extraordinary bond they shared.

Existing only in fragments of oracle bone inscriptions, over the course of three millennia, it remains a mystery as to what Fu Hao actually looked like. Although no record of her physical appearance exists, artifacts unearthed from Fu Hao’s tomb offer some clues.

The Shang Dynasty placed significant emphasis on elaborate burials, frequently entombing a multitude of items used by the deceased, alongside a plethora of ceremonial vessels. These items closely resembled those utilized in everyday life, enabling researchers to infer certain details about the tomb’s occupant.

Fu Hao’s tomb, located about 400 meters slightly west of the north of Xiaotun Village in Anyang, Henan Province, measured 5.6 meters in length and 4 meters in width – just over 20 square meters in total. Remarkably, it yielded a total of 1,928 burial items, 468 of which were bronze artifacts.

Within the tomb, several large Yue, or battle-axes, were unearthed, notably a pair of bronze Yue – one embellished with a dragon motif and the other with a tiger motif – each weighing 9 kilograms. If these Yue were indeed the weapons used by Fu Hao during her lifetime, it suggests she possessed significant strength and likely stood tall, given that wielding such heavy battle-axes would demand considerable physical prowess.

Additionally, a jade thumb ring discovered in Fu Hao’s tomb is currently the largest known thumb ring from the Shang and Zhou periods. Its size suggests it was intended for the finger of a robust male, leading to speculation about Fu Hao’s potential height, with some estimates reaching 1.75 meters.

Furthermore, a kneeling jade figurine found in Fu Hao’s tomb exhibits distinct Mongol features. Behind the figurine, an object resembling a knife handle was discovered. The inclusion of a knife image with a figurine is uncommon, and it is generally believed that the knife handle symbolizes military might, representing Fu Hao’s elevated military status. This has led to speculation that the jade figurine might depict the image of Fu Hao herself.

After Fu Hao’s passing, Wu frequently sought divination to inquire about which ancestor of the Shang Dynasty had “claimed” Fu Hao. The divinations mentioned several previous kings, including the sixth king Zu Yi, the 11th, Tai Jia, and the 13th, Cheng Tang. Various interpretations surround Wu’s inquiries, sparking discussions and differing viewpoints on their significance.

One perspective posits that, after Fu Hao’s death, Wu chose to metaphorically marry her off, entrusting her to three great kings in the underworld. Another viewpoint suggests that Wu’s inquiries were about determining which king had “claimed her life”. This interpretation aims to facilitate accurate sacrificial rituals to honor the king who took Fu Hao away.

The diverse interpretations revolve around the character “取” (qu), which comprises an ear on the left side and a hand on the right. Initially symbolizing the act of cutting off an enemy’s ear in warfare, this evolved to encompass a broader meaning of acquisition. During the Shang Dynasty, it also symbolized the capturing of women for marriage in times of war.

The character “取” (meaning take) and the character “娶” (meaning to marry) shared the same written form at that time, yet carried distinct meanings, thus contributing to varying interpretations of Wu’s divinations.

Regardless of Wu’s original intent, his deep affection for Fu Hao is obvious, meaning that Fu Hao lived a remarkable life, reflected in her military successes, her brilliance, and the devoted love of her husband.

Well, that’s the end of our podcast. Our theme music is by the famous film score composer Roc Chen. We want to thank our writer Lü Weitao, translator Du Guodong, and copy editor James McCarthy. And thank you for listening. We hope you enjoyed it, and if you did, please tell a friend so they, too, can understand The Context.