You're Amped Up

You’re presumably reading this description because you like to listen to podcasts. And you can listen to podcasts because clever people invented loudspeakers a century-and-change ago. And loudspeakers were not possible without the invention of electronic amplifiers. Which were not possible without vacuum tubes. Which are a lot like light bulbs.

What was it like to experience electronically amplified sound for the first time? Did it set crowds of people into hysterical panic? Why or why not? Why were there so many innovations in audio tech at around the same time between the 1870s and 1930s? What is a magnavox and what does it have to do with Magnavox-with-a-capital 'M'? Why did the Great Grape Juice Waterfall of 1915 never, in fact, actually take place?

These and many other fascinating interrogative sentences appear in this episode! Plug in now to learn more about how electronic amplification transformed the world into the weird place it is today.

Pre-episode stuff: Keep up with the strangeness of now by signing up for the totally free YAAW email list. Just fill out the form at the top of the page at findyourselfinhistory.com . Thanks!

Transcript

YAAW Podcast | Episode 110 | Doug Sofer

You’re Amped Up!

©2023 Doug Sofer

Cold Open

•   [Fade in theme]

•   Welcome back to this electrifying [zap noise] new podcast about how history helps us all to make sense of the Strangeness of Now.

•   [pause]

•   [Overly dramatic, plinky piano music in background]

•   Previously on You Are A Weirdo.

•   [Reintroduce topic with real Ep9 quotes. Intersperse with following dramatic fake scenes, especially @ end.]

•   [dreamy audio effect of some kind? Maybe a light stereo chorus or flanger or old radio effect?]

•   But you know, historically speaking, a single person asking a crowd to [yelling] make some noise! [/yelling. Brief swelling up & fading out of crowd]

•   —may be fairly new.

•   …

•   For example, colosseums and other amphitheaters throughout ancient Greece   and Rome are still places where an orator’s voice travels much further and more clearly than if that individual were talking in a normal outdoor space.

•   …

•   even the party-poopingest of these scientists agreed that you could absolutely hear a seasoned actor or orator from all the way in the back.

•   …

•   …gifted, disciplined speakers with access to additional technological tools can pull off different kinds of oratorical feats.

•   …

•   Up until the twentieth century, if you wanted some kind of physical tool to make your voice louder—and you didn’t have an amphitheater nearby—you really had just the one remaining option: Using some kind of cone-shaped voice loudening device.

•   …

•   And these kinds of sound-cones were not only found in Europe and around the Mediterranean Sea.

•   Back in the Americas, at least one group of indigenous people also utilized a similar device.

•   …

•   [Fake flashback #2: Angry voice, dramatic music with reverb akin to a courtroom] You want a nuanced, evidence-informed understanding of the historical context of innovations in audio amplification and related technologies?

•   [pause] You can’t HANDLE a nuanced, evidence-informed understanding of the historical context of innovations in audio amplification and related technologies!!!

•   [Small crowd uproar & gasping, gavel banging and judge yelling in 1930s gentrified US accent] Order! Order in the court!

•   …

•   In 1671, the mathematician, inventor, man-of-letters, diplomat, spy, and all-around-smarty pants guy named Samuel Morland claimed to have used scientific principles to invent a new kind of amplification horn called the speaking trumpet.

•   …

·      … pushing air harder through this kind of device was the only known way to amplify sound. …at least until the invention of electronic amplification.

•   …

•   crafty inventors figured out that they could make louder noises—using existing megaphone technology—but forcing more air through it—with one of those new-fangled electric motors.

•   One of the best examples of this technology came in the form of the Victor Auxetophone.

•   --

•   the fact that the Ancient Library of Alexandria had a whooshing air-based amplified instrument is a testament to how utterly erratic—and downright jerky—that so-called progress can be.

•   [Fake flashback #3: Dramatic sci fi strings. Deep breathing, Vaderesque voice]: Do you know what really happened to your great uncle on your mother’s father’s side?

•   [CQ. Sobbing, panting]: You killed him—with your auxeto-sword!

•   [Deep Voice]: No Captain Pulsar: I AM your great uncle on your mother’s father’s side!

•   [CQ, in tears] NOO—FREAKING!—WWAAAAAAAAYYYYYYYYYYY!

•   [fade out and pause]

•   Okay, I might have only dreamt a few of those flashbacks.

•   [pause]

•   But much of that summary was accurate: We were talking about ways of making one’s voice louder prior to the invention of electronic amplification.

•   [pause]

•   So today, we’re continuing our bold journey into The Loud by finally entering the electronic amplification age.

•   [pause]

•   And yeah, I get that continuing from a previous episode that first aired a couple of weeks ago might make you feel like you’re being strung along like a speaker cable.

•   [pause]

•   But you know what? It’s going to be just fine. I’m a professional historian—and I’ve been trained to metaphorically solder these two topics together.

•   My name is Doug Sofer, and I’m a weirdo—just like you.

Theme / call for sponsors

•   Do you know any sad, sad people who have not yet heard this show?

•   If so, please consider transforming them into happy, happy people by telling them about it!

•   And if you want me to be a happy happy podcaster, head on over to findyourselfinhistory.com/sponsors to learn about ways to support this one-of-a-kind history project! Thanks!

The invention of electronic amplification

·      Electronic amplification changed everything. Sure, we said in our last episode, it’s possible to use voice training, architecture, acoustic funnels, and even compressed air to make someone louder.

·      But the electronic amplifier made this process cheaper and easier to implement. It’s far simpler to regulate volume electronically, to clarify the signal.

·      It’s superior in most ways to the technological solutions that had ever preceded it—throughout the entirety of the human experience.

·      [pause]

·      Which is why this episode is called You’re Amped Up! Because you are. Every day. Like—right now, listening to this podcast.

·      And you are a weirdo!—

o   [dive bomb] 

·      —is the name of this podcast, so this might just be the best place on earth to think about how odd it was to have turned the volume dial to eleven for the first time.

·      [pause]

·      It was not, in fact, all that long ago; in terms of its mass adoption, it’s really only about a century old.

·      And it started with the invention of the triode.

·      [pause]

·      If you’re a humanities guy like me and your engineering and/or physics chops are rusty—you might guess that a word composed of “tri” and “ode” might be referring to a three-part lyric poem.

·      [pause]

·      You’d’ve guessed wrong.

·      [pause]

·      It actually refers to an electronic device that has three electrodes.

·      The triode was first made possible by putting those three electrodes in a specific configuration inside of a vacuum tube.

·      Which leads us to our next question: Why would anyone in their right mind think that sucking the air out of a glass cylinder [sucking sound] was a good idea?

·      [pause]

·      It was a good idea for the same reason you suck the air out of an incandescent light bulb: Generally speaking, when you run an electrical charge through a thin exposed filament, it reacts with oxygen and combusts. [fizzle sound?]

o   The way to solve that problem is to suck the oxygen out—creating a vacuum—and possibly replacing it with some other gas that won’t combust.

·      [pause]

·      In other words, the vacuum tube—the most important, game-changing invention in the history of sound-loudening—is the technological step-sister of the most important, game-changing invention in the history of light-brightening.

·      [pause]

·      At this point I had been planning to introduce how vacuum tubes work by first describing how incandescent light bulbs function. I figured that’d be the simple way to begin, right?

o   Annoyingly, that’s not the case—a fact that’s apparent from a 2015 Forbes Magazine article entitled “The Surprisingly Complicated Physics Of A Light Bulb,” by a physicist at Union College named Chad Orzel.

o   So like an incandescent light bulb that’s been left on for a while, this topic is too hot to handle and I’m not going to touch it.

o   Let’s just get to the vacuum tube instead.

·      [pause]

·      The first simple vacuum tube was invented all the way back in 1904 by a Brit named John Ambrose Fleming, who called it a thermionic valve. [Therm ee AH nick]

·      What actually what happens inside these guys? Here’s how it’s described on a website managed by John Lienhard, Professor Emeritus in mechanical engineering from the University of Houston:

o   [QE] “…in a vacuum, electrons flow from a heated element—like an incandescent lamp filament—to a cooler metal plate… the magic of the effect is that electrons can flow only from the hot element to the cool plate, but not the other way.”

·      The result of this temperature-based one-way flow is that the outgoing current of electrons is stronger than the incoming flow. It allows a weaker current to be converted to a stronger current.

·      In other words, it strengthens—amplifies—the flow of electrons—by keeping them flowing in that one direction.

·      In modern parlance this thermionic valve is known as a diode—called that because it operates with two electrodes.

·      [pause]

·      In 1904 it became clear that you could use one of these suckers to convert weaker alternating current—AC—over to stronger direct current—DC.

·      [pause]

·      In 1906, based on that diode, came that triode.

·      The U.S. inventor Lee De Forest invented it first as what he called a “detector” of radio waves that were passing by.

·      It worked the same, except that the part through which the current flowed in one direction was surrounded by a grid—a kind of wire mesh that was itself powered with a separate battery charge.

·      By changing the amount of power going to that grid, you can raise and lower the resistance to the current that’s flowing through. Which means you can control the level of amplification of the electrical signal coming through the tube.

·      [pause]

·      De Forest called this new amplifying triode flavor of vacuum tube, the Audion.

·      And it made it possible to have radio on a large scale, forever changing how human beings communicated with one another.

·      It gave birth to multiple kinds of technologies we now take for granted: broadcasting networks, long-distance communication, the ability to amplify not just radio transmitters but also radio receivers.

·      [pause]

·      For that reason, it was in the radio business where you saw folks most jazzed about the tube amplifiers.

o   Literally jazzed!

·      The headline of an article in the Evening World newspaper out of New York City, from May 1920 reads:

o   “[QE] Students Dance to Wireless Jazz”

·      University students at Pitt in Pittsburgh, PA, danced to music transmitted by radio. The jazz in question was played an orchestra at a concert hall at Carnegie Institute of Technology—Today Carnegie Mellon University—a full half-mile down the road.

·      The amplification tech that allowed this long-distance music to be transmitted loudly enough was called the magnavox—from Latin magna meaning great and vox meaning voice. The article explains that the magnavox

o   “[QE] … is an instrument which was used widely in military operations to increase the sound from a radio receiver.”

·      As late as 1920, then—nearly a decade and a half after the vacuum tube triode had first been patented—amplifying vacuum tubes and wireless radio started to accompany one another—like a couple of zany college students dancing with one another to the jazz.

·      [pause]

·      But this tech wasn’t just useful for wireless radio.

·      It turns out that those vacuum tubes could also work with wired systems to make all kinds of cool and loud noises—a fact which Lee De Forest made loud and clear to as many people as would listen.

·      For example, way back in 1915 the New York Times refers to the curious sounds that De Forest made in a demonstration to the scientific and tech community in the Big Apple.

·      The headline?

o   “[QE]Men of Science See De Forest’s Audion:

o   “Inventor Demonstrates Lamp’s Musical Possibilities to Engineers.

·      Again, they call the vacuum tube a lamp because that’s pretty much what the closest tech was to it at the time.

·      The article then it adds an additional subheader:

o   “[QE] Made to sing as a bird.”

·      [pause]

·      Wait—didn’t we already talk about bird noises when we investigated early phonograph recordings in Episode 3?

o   Apparently, folks in the early history of audio tech started tweeting early.

·      [pause]

·      [clear throat subtly] 

·      The Times describes the avian portion of De Forest’s demonstration as follows:

o   [QE] “One of the sounds produced last night by the instrument very closely resembled the frightened calling of a lost chicken. ‘I venture to say,’ said Mr. de Forest when he made his electric light perform this feat, ‘that no musical instrument ever made sounds like that before.’”

·      [pause]

·      Actually, I’ve met trumpet players who can pull off some practically perfect poultry impressions with their horns—but sure, De Forest definitely was showing off something innovative here.

·      [pause]

·      So to sum up what we’ve learned so far:

·      By the end of the first decade of the 20th century, we’ve got all the electronic components we need to build a global network of radio signals. 

·      And we can even plug them in and make some bird noises.

·      By the middle of the 1920s, all these technologies would come together and make PA or public address systems—commonplace.

·      [pause]

·      Let’s trace the paths of these wires and we’ll discover how electrically juicing-up volume—altered speakers, both of the electronic and human sort.

·      [Separator music]

Loudspeakers for public speakers

·      That magnavox loudspeaker we mentioned earlier capitalized on the triode vacuum tube, and made the rapid expansion of PA loudspeaker systems possible.

·      In May 1915, two inventors from Denmark—Edwin Pridham and Peter Jensen—set up shop in central California.

·      The friendly, presumably wine-imbibing folks at the Napa County Historical Society in California describe Pridham & Jensen’s first test. After accidentally creating a loud eruption of feedback that sounded like a gunshot and freaked out all their neighbors, they got the system working and tested it by blasting out the following insightful words to their community:

o   [QE—maybe with more juiced sound effect] “Hello, Sacramento, hello, Sacramento. Can you hear me? How is my voice coming in? Do you hear me clearly and distinctly? Hello, Sacramento. If you can hear me, start your bonfire.”]

·      [pause]

·      Or at least it would have sounded exactly like that—if I had even the slightest clue on how to do a Danish-American-California accent from the mid-19-teens.

o   Which I obviously don’t!

·      [pause]

·      Anyway, you might think that the people of Sacramento would start freaking out, hearing this thunderous loudspeaker tech for the very first time in human history.

·      [pause]

·      They didn’t.

·      [pause]

·      Instead, folks within hearing range ran to their telephones and called this dynamic duo of deafening Danish Dudes, requesting—that they play music!

·      So why didn’t this new loudspeaker cause more of an uproar?

·      [pause]

·      After all, this tech was definitely new—and still a work in progress.

·      In fact, over the next years, scientists, engineers, inventors and tech journalists alike constantly played around with new applications for this thing—new ways to use the Magnavox to broadcast loud sounds far and wide—all the while Pridham and Jensen and others at their new company—also called Magnavox—kept refining their systems.

·      For example, The Washington Times newspaper of April 21 of 1919, described a demonstration of the Magnavox. The headline reads

o   “[QE] Crowd Hears Loan Speech from Plane High In Sky”

·      It begins

o   “[QE] A brand new scientific invention, the magnavox, was pressed into service for the first time today, the opening day of the drive for the Victory liberty loan.”

·      And the reporter claims that

o   “[QE] Ten thousand persons cheered”

·      as the plane flew 3,000 feet above the crowd.

·      By this point, the Magnavox had been improved and modified so that it could filter out extraneous noises—even from the extremely loud airplane engine in the cockpit of the plane.

·      [pause]

·      And the tech kept on improving.

·      The introduction to a 1924 college textbook called

o   “[QE] Purposive Speaking”

·      describes how important it is for a public orator to think carefully about the differences between making a public speech and making simple conversation.

·      It counsels that the further away you are from your audience, the louder you need to speak—a speech maker has to sacrifice subtlety in order to be sufficiently loud. But then the author adds a line that did not appear in previously published books on this topic.

·      It says of a would-be orator:

o   “[QE]...suppose he is talking over the radio, or suppose that his audience chamber is equipped with audion bulb amplifiers, then these distinctions fail.”

·      [pause]

·      By 1926, the London-based Wireless World, a magazine for radio professionals and hobbyists, features an article describing how the historic church building in the English city of Bath had been recently wired for sound amplification.

o   “[QE] When the pious men built the ancient Abbey of Bath, either the question of acoustics did not come up for consideration, or clerical lungs were tougher than they are today.”

·      The church leaders installed a new Marconiphone Public Address system—built by the company founded and named after the father of the radio, Gugliermo Marconi of Italy.

·      The system included an amplifier, a switchboard, multiple microphones, and a network of loudspeakers that reach parts of the building that had been so-called “dead zones” up until this audio engineering project had been added.

·      The article’s author praises how the equipment looks sufficiently classy to complement the sacred décor and adds:

o   “The church authorities are to be congratulated on the progressive spirit which has prompted them to take advantage of modern scientific methods to make the service audible to every member of the congregation.”

·      [pause]

·      And amped up voices weren’t only to be found urging people to buy bonds—or on public stages—or airplanes—or in churches.

o   They were also used to yell at workers—I mean—inspire employees.

·      A short “news in brief” micro-article from a 1926 Wireless World, cites an Australian businessman who studied business practices in the United States and concluded:

o   “[QE] The installation of loud speakers in American factories and workshops has increased production by 20 per cent.”

·      So they were showing up in people’s workplaces too by 1926.

·      [pause] 

·      And in yet another issue of Wireless World from that year, there is a photo of the U.S. Assistant Secretary of War, Hanford MacNider, making a speech to the entire large crowd of cadets at West Point military academy.

·      The photo caption is especially useful for what we’re trying to do here:

o   “[QE] The use of loud-speakers and amplifiers for public speaking has practically ceased to arouse comment in America where these benefits are taken as a matter of course.”

·      [pause]

·      I’ve thrown this photo and caption on to this episode’s page at findyourselfinhistory.com if you’d like to see it.

·      [pause]

·      But these kinds of moments—when a phenomenon that had once been understood as novel becomes part of normal, everyday life—are what this podcast is all about. 

·      That’s where the different ingredients that make up the Strangeness of Now come into being.

·      [pause]

·      When I decided to take on the question of loudspeaker tech for this episode, I expected to find more documentary evidence of people who were disturbed at how weird it was to hear all of these new super-loud human voices thundering everywhere around them.

·      But history is an evidence-based discipline—meaning that just because we want to find something in the past, doesn’t mean it’s there.

·      History is full of surprises.

·      [pause]

·      And what I found on this topic surprised me.

o   I expected the people in Sacramento who heard Pridham and Jensen’s voices to go nuts.

o   I thought they’d sprint away from the noise up to the grapevine-festooned hills, trample all those cabernet sauvignon grapes and maybe I’d find references to the great grape juice waterfall of 1915 or something.

o   [pause]

·      [pause]

·      But no: fortunately—for the humans and the grapes—that’s not how it went down at all.

·      [pause]

·      Contrast that calm reception to early loudspeakers to the reactions of the first people to listen to a recorded voice for the first time ever.

·      I talked in the third episode of this podcast about the popular reception of Thomas Edison’s phonograph, which had been invented in 1877.

·      People who heard one of those for the first time grasped just how bizarre—how new and foreign to all prior human experience—that particular technology was.

·      And the phonograph’s invention had come out of many earlier experiments from the tail end of the 18th century through the early 19th century—and with the pace of invention accelerating into the 1870s.

·      Alexander Graham Bell’s 1876 patent for the telephone had preceded Edison’s phonograph by a year. And Bell’s work had built off of many prior experiments with vibrations and electricity; his practical version of the telephone would not have been possible without many, many other scientists and engineers who had worked out similar—though less reliable telephone and telephone-like technologies—in the many decades leading up to the 1870s.

·      [pause]

·      And many of those technologies came out of increased experimentation with the telegraph—whose so-called forgotten father built a wired signaling system all the way back in 1823.

o   I talk about that development in Episode #5, by the way.

·      [pause]

·      The wide scale adoption of all those technologies had already changed the world by the first decades of the 1900s. And, again, the pace had accelerated.

·      Inventors like Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Lee De Forest, Edwin Pridham, Peter Jensen, Édouard Branly, Nikola Tesla, Guglielmo Marconi, and dozens of other inventors had become famous—often rich too—during their lifetimes.

o   And for each well-known inventor, there were at least tens of thousands of other inventive people—hobbyists and professionals alike—who worked in laboratories or explored practical applications of these technologies, or read, subscribed to, and wrote letters to tech publications, or joined like-minded communities of fellow A-V nerds.

·      [pause]

·      They hailed from all over the globe—basically all over the industrialized world, including Western Europe and the United States but also Eastern Europe and Japan.

·      So by the time of that 1915 Napa loudspeaker experiment, Americans—and many others around many parts of the earth—had been long accustomed to new inventions and discoveries that manipulated sound in new ways.

o   And we haven’t even mentioned dynamite, automobiles, airplanes, motion pictures, or a million other factory-made inventions that changed everyday life at an accelerated pace, from the second half of the 19th century to the 1920s and beyond.

·      [pause]

·      It seems, then, that the thundering sound of the loudspeaker-driven PA system, had already had had some of its thunder stolen from it by the time these amplifiers went live.

o   The idea of new technologies—had become old.

·      [pause]

·      Let’s think about the implications of that fact as we start to wrap up this episode.

·      [Separator music]

Conclusion

·      Electronic amplification blasted out into the world, riding an enormous wave of innovation and invention that came out of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

·      But unlike the inside of those triode tubes, these technologies did not emerge out of a vacuum.

·      [pause]

·      Sure, all the inventors we’ve discussed were clever people. But the increased frequency of invention during this era involved so much more than just being clever.

·      [pause]

·      A lot of that frequency came about because of industrialization—a period called the Second Industrial Revolution.

·      After all, even though these inventors came from many parts of the globe, pretty much all these individuals came from—or at least lived most of their lives—in countries with industrial economies.

·      [pause]

·      This wave of inventions emerged out of an industrial era that witnessed a complex interconnected array of social and intellectual trends—new ways of thinking, new concepts for conceiving of society, government, economics, and the role of the individual—even religion and the arts.

·      [pause]

·      Governments and business owners organized their entire countries around the production of manufactured goods in powered-up factories—with conveyer-belts and machinery and easy-to-replace workers—whose owners attempted to maximize efficiency of production—and optimize profit.

·      And this big factory-based system helps explain why the pace of invention broke into a flat-out sprint during this age.

·      [pause]

·      But unlike the one-way electrons in those triode vacuum tubes, innovation during this era had become a two-way process.

o   Going one way, factory owners, assembly line workers, and tech employees all worked for increasingly enormous companies to prototype,  perfect and mass-produce new audio devices—like the audion amplifier, the magnavox PA system, and the many technologies that came after.

o   At the same time, going in the other direction, these same audio technologies were used by industrialists—to market their products, to communicate by wired telephones or wireless radio to one another, to use loudspeakers in order to increase production within the factories themselves.

·      At the end of the day, the increased frequency of technological innovations, inventions and scientific discoveries during this era came out of—and perpetuated—a kind of feedback loop.

o   New technologies, including those of sound amplification, led to other technologies, creating a situation in to innovation itself became almost expected.

·      [pause]

·      And we’re still living in that strange new world of accelerated technological transformation today; it’s our normal as well.

·      [Pause]

·      And even though the early 20th century seems like a long time ago, in the big picture of human experience, it’s still recent.

·      [pause]

·      Now compare that fact to the conclusion of the previous episode—the revelation that for thousands of years, technological change had occurred only in fits and starts—that basic pipe organ design had been around for literally thousands of years.

·      That for millennia, your best bet for amplifying sound was to make a cone—or find an amphitheater.

·      The contrast is one indication that our current, breakneck pace of innovation is, once again, brand-spanking new.

·      [pause]

·      Understanding that newness—gaining that temporal perspective—may be the main reason that studying history is vital to comprehending the peculiar world in which we find ourselves today.

Outro, teaser, credits

·      Next time:

·      You may have noticed by now that I keep saying that I’ve wanted to talk specifically about the relationship between audio technology and dictatorships.

·      But I keep getting caught up with the tech side of the conversation—partly because there’s a lot to understand.

o   And partly because it’s a lot of fun to read about and discuss.

·      [pause]

·      But we still need to answer that initial question:

o   How did the use of amplification technology allow political leaders to appear larger than life during the early age sound amplification?

o   That’s next time—again.

·      Another question: Will this be an actual trilogy? Or will it end up a five-ish-or sixish-part trilogy like the Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy? Or maybe like Isaac Asimov’s seven-book Foundationtrilogy?

·      Stay tuned and find out!

·      [pause]

·      You may find the references to the historical sources, sound files, and other information used for this and other episodes at findyourselfinhistory.com .

·      If you’ve got insights or observations or questions about this episode or about any aspect of this podcast, feel free to lob an email in my general direction at doug@findyourselfinhistory.com .

·      Special thanks to professor of Computer Science Robert Lowe from Southeast Missouri State University for helping a simple country historian and all-around-humanities guy better understand how vacuum tubes work.

o   Note that if I screwed up any of that part, it’s because I didn’t paraphrase his explanation well enough and I take full responsibility for those errors. 

o   Please do not sent Bob angry emails—at least not for that reason.

·      Bob and I used to occasionally eat lunch together at Maryville College—a place so close to the Great Smoky Mountains that you can see them right from campus on a marginally clear day—or better.

o   Maryville College: Everyday Unexpected. Learn more at maryvillecollege.edu 

o   [Fast, lawyerly] Opinions expressed in this podcast are mine alone and do not necessarily reflect those of Maryville College, its administration, faculty, staff, students, board of directors, or sentient vacuum-tube powered robots lurking in the basement of Thaw Hall.

·      This podcast episode was researched, written, edited, narrated, recorded and mixed by Doug Sofer; all materials are copyright 2023 Doug Sofer. The theme song was written and performed by Doug Sofer with Matt Trimboli on rhythm guitar. You can find out more about Matt at trimboli.com .

·      Thanks for listening.