Casting Through Ancient Greece
Casting Through Ancient Greece
86: Shifting Dynamics
Ever wondered how a single year could turn the tide in a protracted war? This episode takes you deep into the seventh year of the Peloponnesian War, uncovering the critical strategies and events that reshaped the conflict.
As we shift our focus to the campaigning season of 425 BC, the narrative gets even more gripping. Discover how Athens leveraged treachery and strategic brilliance to capture Anactunorium and gain control over the Peloponnesian fleet. The collapse of Spartan military prestige and the waning threats from Syracuse and Persia allowed Athens to strengthen its empire and secure its dominance by the end of the year. These developments set the stage for Athens to reassess its imperial strategies and bolster its defences, reshaping the balance of power in the war.
In our final segment, we dissect the aggressive Athenian campaigns that followed their successes at Sphacteria. The capture of Cythera and Thyrea, along with the invasions of Spartan territories, reveal a shift in Athenian military policy influenced by internal rivalries between figures like Cleon and Nicias. We delve into the political ramifications of these actions and how they exacerbated Spartan vulnerabilities. Join us as we unravel the dramatic shift in the course of the Peloponnesian War, showcasing Athens' ascension and Sparta's stagnation during these critical years.
Then too, they were greatly disheartened by the many unpredictable blows of fortune which had fallen upon them in such a short time, and they were constantly afraid that some other disaster might overtake them, like the one at Sphacteria Thucydides. Hello, I'm Mark Selleck, and welcome back to Casting Through Ancient Greece, episode 86, shifting Dynamics. So we are now well into the seventh year of the Peloponnesian War, where, along the way, we have experienced a great deal already. So far, the fundamental nature of the war had been Sparta mounting an annual invasion of Attica. Its purpose had been to ravage the Athenian regions where the majority of their farmland was. In the past, this had been the usual tactic in Greek warfare to bring the other side out to engage in a hoplite battle. These would usually last for the day, and a decision was reached, though. In the years leading up to the breakout of the war, athens had been preparing defensively and, as we have seen, these preparations would see them not having to bow to the traditional response to an invader on their land. Athens had secured their city physically as well as economically. There had been opposition to this approach to the war within Sparta, but nevertheless they would continue with it year after year. Athens, on the other hand, had been able to remain on a defensive stance, staying behind their walls and not reacting to the Spartan incursions into their lands. This was not easy to watch for all, though, year after year, many would become frustrated with this approach, which formed the centre of Pericles' policy.
Speaker 1:We would see, during this period, other events that would take place that would add further complexities and challenges. Athens, not long after the beginning of the war, would have to suffer through a few years of a devastating plague, which would also claim Pericles their leading figure driving policy. Other theatres would also open up, with Potidaea consuming Athenian resources, while Plataea would see Athens and Sparta committing forces into Boeotia. The western areas of Greece would also grow in importance as the war progressed, which would see a growing Athenian and Peloponnesian involvement. This would see actions around Corsaira and the lands along the Corinthian Gulf, while a different approach would see the Athenians committing forces to an expedition into Sicily. These increased operations in the east possibly see a beginning to both sides looking for new ways in waging the war and attempting to gain an advantage over the other. The events that were to unfold around Sicily would see reinforcements sent, though they would be given orders to engage in other tasks en route. This would end up leading to an action on the western Peloponnesian coast that would result in a Spartan force laying down their arms and surrendering to the Athenians. This was the first time this had occurred and had shocked the Greek world. The surrender of the Spartans at Sphacteria would result in one of the first instances where one side would hold a strategic advantage over the other.
Speaker 1:For this episode, I want to cover over what else had been going on during the 425 season of the war and moving into the 424, while also taking a step back and looking at what the current situation now meant to both sides. Last episode saw probably the first major step in changing the dynamics of the war and its routine trajectory each year, so it would be good to spend some time around this to analyse what this meant to Athens and Sparta. This will also give us the opportunity to look on the political landscape within Athens, where we can see the rivalry now starting to develop between Cleon and Nicias, while we'll also do our best to look at Sparta's political dynamics at this time. So let's first start with what else had been taking place. In 425 BC, with the success at Seccateria, the Athenians would launch another expedition. This would be made up of 80 ships, along with 2,000 hoplites and 200 cavalry, to be directed at Corinthian territory. Also supporting this force would be allies from Miletus, andros and Charistus, with the whole force being commanded by Nicias. The fleet would sail across the Saronic Gulf and land on the east coast of the Peloponnese, about 11km south of Corinth, with the main feature being the Seleuian Hill that overlooked the area.
Speaker 1:Before the Athenian landing, the Corinthians had received word that Athens was planning to lead a campaign against them. Although some Corinthian forces were away on garrison duties as part of the Peloponnesian forces, corinth was still able to muster a large force to be ready on the Isthmus and on lookout for the Athenians. Though the Athenian fleet would make their move at landing on the coast during the night, which would see the force not being detected during the landing. Though once the Corinthian force had received word of the Athenians on their territory, they would move quickly to resist them. The Corinthian force would be divided into two, where one group were to remain on the defensive should the Athenians make a move closer to Corinth. The other force would make their way towards where the Athenians were to land, with one part of the force occupying the Seoam Hill and the other would move to attack the Athenians. They would move on the Athenians' right wing, just as they had come ashore a short time earlier, though it wouldn't be long until fighting was taking place all along the battle line.
Speaker 1:The Athenians and their allies were able to stand their ground and would eventually push the Corinthians back. They would retire to some high ground in the rear where a stone wall stood. From here, they would start throwing stones down onto the Athenians' position and, once building their resolve, they would make another attempt on the Athenian line, charging them. Another hard-fought engagement would take place, though this time some Corinthian reinforcements had arrived on the scene and would join the fray. The Athenian right wing would start to give way under this added pressure and be driven back towards the sea. However, the Athenians and their allies would regain their composure and would once again beat back the attack on the right. Elsewhere down the line, the fighting continued as a stalemate, with neither side yielding, but finally, perhaps due to the threat of the Athenian cavalry, as the Corinthians had none to counter them, the Corinthians would be routed, making their way back to the high ground, with the protection of the wall.
Speaker 1:This time around, though they would not advance again onto the Athenian line. After some time the Athenians, realising that the Corinthians were not going to offer battle again, would recover their dead, strip the enemy and construct a trophy on the battlefield to claim their victory. It was after the Athenians had done this that more Corinthian forces would begin to descend towards their position. The force that had remained on the defensive had been unable to gain a clear view of the battle that had been unfolding, but had seen the dust in the air kicked up by the fighting. Seeing that it appeared battle was taking place, they began to move in the dust in the air kicked up by the fighting. Seeing that it appeared battle was taking place, they began to move in the direction of the action. Others from within Corinth also looked to gather arms and join the battle that had been unfolding. Once the Athenians saw more troops making for their position, they assumed them to be forces from other Peloponnesian cities coming to aid the Corinthians.
Speaker 1:Seeing these fresh forces move onto their position, the Athenians gathered up all they had obtained in the engagement and loaded back onto their ships. The fleet would continue their activities, with them landing further down the coast, still in Corinthian territory, where they would raid the Corinthian town of Chromion but would not attempt to capture it. After this, they would continue to the peninsula of Methana between Epidaurus and Trozen. Here Nicias would have the peninsula walled off and a garrison left behind who would raid the nearby towns. It's these activities that appear to have been the purpose of Nicias' expedition Early on. They had not had the chance to establish themselves before being attacked, but further to the south they were able to build a fort to where they could direct raiding operations.
Speaker 1:Perhaps after the success at Sphacteria, athens looked to establish a fort on the eastern side of the Peloponnese. Now, if enough pressure could be placed on the smaller allies within the Peloponnesian League, they might come over to the Athenian side or at least abandon Sparta. After the surprise at Sphacteria, it would have seemed, momentum was on Athens' side and it was well worth trying to force another situation that might develop to their advantage. These events near Corinth were taking place as events around Pylos were wrapping up. We're not going to go back over what took place at Pylos, but we are going to look in a little more detail on what would take place at Caesarea when Eurymedon and Sophocles would leave Pylos after the Spartans surrender as Vecteria and sail onto the island.
Speaker 1:As we had briefly covered previously, the oligarchs had managed to re-establish themselves at Caesarea, within the region of Mount Estone. The Athenian fleet was sailing onto Gucera to assist the Democrats within the city to prevent the oligarchs continuing to gain influence. Upon arriving, the Athenians joined with the island's democratic forces and marched onto the positions of the oligarchs. The main stronghold was attacked and was able to be taken by the Ksyrenes and their Athenian allies. However, the forces of the oligarchs had not been decisively beaten and were able to fall back to higher ground as an organised force. Although they had been able to withdraw in an organised manner, they must have recognised their position was not a favourable one and, rather, continuing to resist, they would accept terms given by the Athenians. The oligarchs had agreed to surrender the mercenaries that had been part of their force, while they themselves would give up their arms and accept whatever judgment would be passed down by the Athenians.
Speaker 1:The Democrats, whose hatred had not abated towards the oligarchs, were concerned that the Athenians, when judging their enemy, would not sentence them to death. So they would implement a scheme to sabotage the truce existing between the Athenians and the oligarchs when agreeing to the terms of surrender, the oligarchs had been transferred to an island to be held until they could be transferred to Athens. It was understood that if any of the oligarchs attempted to escape, the truce currently in place would cease to be in effect to all the oligarchs. The Democrats, knowing this, now employed individuals known to be on friendly terms with some of the oligarchs and sent them in secretly to the island. These individuals were sent in with the aim of convincing at least some of the oligarchs to escape their captivity. Help would be given in the form of boats to get off the island, while extra motivation was given with stories of the Athenians planning to give the prisoners over to the Democrats of Corsaira. The oligarchs knew all too well their fate if these stories would turn out to be true. These individuals were able to convince the oligarchs of an escape attempt. However, the attempt was arranged in such a way by the agents of the Democrats that they would be discovered by the Athenians, with some of the oligarchs being caught in their attempted escape. The truce that had existed was now void and the Athenians handed over the oligarchs to the Democrats.
Speaker 1:The Caesarean Democrats took control of the prisoners and then began setting about ending the civil war. The oligarchs were transferred to a large building where they were held, while 20 at a time were taken out and forced to march between two rows of hoplites where they were beaten and stabbed. 60 men were killed in this manner before the rest of the captives worked out what was taking place. Originally, they had thought that they were merely being held before being transferred to another prison. They then refused to leave the building they were in and made it clear they would resist any attempt to force them out. The Democrats had no intention of forcing their way into the building, and instead they got on top of it, destroyed the roof and threw tiles and fired arrows into those below. The captives feared they would be injured and a worse fate would await them, so they began taking their own lives, using the arrows fired at them and material in the building to hang themselves. This gruesome scene would continue on into the night, but by the morning the Democrats would be able to enter the building and carry off the dead in carts. This would effectively be the end of the civil war in Corsaira, as the oligarchs had now ceased to exist as a faction on the island. The women who had been part of the oligarchic faction, were also rounded up and were all sold into slavery, and were all sold into slavery. With the revolution on the island now wrapped up, the Athenian fleet would depart for Sicily, but, as we have already seen, no-transcript.
Speaker 1:The last major action for the campaigning season of 425 would be one sent out from Neopactus in the Corinthian Gulf. The force would be an Athenian one and would once again target the region of the Embracean Gulf, which had seen action in the past few years. The Athenian force would be supported by Arcananians local to the region and would target the Corinthian city of Anactunorium. The Athenians would be successful in capturing the city through treachery being the most successful approach when a siege develops. Corinthian influence was expelled, and the Arcanians sent settlers from parts of their region into the city to gain control of it.
Speaker 1:The actions of 425 BC, in particular the capture of the Spartans at Sphacteria and the presence of the Athenian-controlled fort of Pylos, had changed the dynamics of the conflict. Up to this point, we had seen, year after year, the development of a stalemate dominating the conflict. Each side had their strategy, but were ultimately unable to influence their will on the other. Now, though, athens held the advantage in the war. The capture of the Spartans had surprised the Greek world and seen the Spartans at a point of crisis, considering the size of the Spartan population. Those Spartans captured made up a significant proportion of their citizen class. Given that Spartan society revolved around the Spartan citizen, this setback had large ramifications for Spartan society, with a great number of Spartan family lines at risk of ending, while it could mean this Spartiarch class might take a generation or two to recover if all those who had been taken prisoner were killed. As well as this, during the truce at Pylos, athens had taken the Peloponnesian fleet hostage and retained control of it when they determined that the Spartans had breached the terms of the truce. This meant that, on the waters, athens effectively had no meaningful opposition to contend with. In extension, this would see that the Athenian Empire would be much more secure, as any members that had been considering revolt would have no naval support to assist them in their bid coming from Athens' enemies. All this would see that Athens now held a great deal of an advantage over Sparta and could attempt to seek a peace that was to its advantage, while putting Sparta in a weakened position. However, as has happened in many times throughout history, athens would need to remain vigilant that this prospect did not see them lose their heads and seek unrealistic terms, while with the passage of time, the situation had a chance at changing once again. Athens would also see that what had originally been challenges that they had been contending with would also resolve themselves due to the actions of the year, further seeing Athens' advantage grow.
Speaker 1:When we explored Athens' first Sicilian expedition, we had seen that one of the possible motivations of embarking on the campaign in the first place had to do with Syracuse being a possible threat to Athens in the Peloponnesian conflict. Syracuse had grown in wealth and power and become the leading city on the island. The city had also been established by Corinthian colonists with a Dorian heritage. It was seen that, with their standing in the Greek world and their Dorian background, it was a very real threat that they may enter into the Peloponnesian war on the site of Sparta. This would have been a great blow for Athens, given the manpower and naval power they would be able to commit. However, with the outcome of the first Sicilian expedition, this prospect had become unlikely. Although Athens had been forced to withdraw from Sicily, a peace on the island had resulted, which saw all the Greek cities settling their differences, with terms also being extended to Athens. If Syracuse looked to assist the Peloponnesians, it would be very likely that Sicily would descend back into a state of war, with Syracuse needing to recall their forces to deal with events back home.
Speaker 1:The other challenge that Athens had faced was the bleeding of their treasury and ability to fund the continuation of the war Previously. If more and more pressure was applied to the members of the Athenian Empire to contribute more funds, this could raise the likelihood of rebellions breaking out, while this could also be the result if those members who contributed men and ships were forced into providing money instead. Result if those members who contributed men and ships were forced into providing money instead. By this stage, this was Athens' preferred method of funding the empire, as they could spend the money on strengthening themselves militarily in the name of protecting the empire. With the new situation, athens was able to readjust their imperial assessment of contributions to the empire for the member cities and islands. This had become more palatable to the members of the empire due to the reasons we had just outlined, with them not being able to receive any Peloponnesian support in a possible revolt.
Speaker 1:Athens would also feel confident that Persia was in no position or mood to interfere in matters. Just yet, in one of the missions sent out to collect money for the empire, a Persian envoy on his way to Sparta was captured at Aeon on the Strymon River. He was brought back to Athens, where his message was translated and it was discovered that Sparta was attempting to negotiate some sort of assistance with Persia. However, the message made it clear that Persia was confused with what exactly was being asked of them. Due to the different messages being delivered by multiple envoys To the Athenians, it became clear that Persia had no developed plans to interfere in the region of the Athenian Empire for now. This, for the time being, saw that they could afford to apply a little more financial pressure within their empire without risking external powers coming to the assistance of those thinking they were being treated unfairly. So basically, by the end of 425, the course of the war had changed dramatically.
Speaker 1:Athens now held a huge bargaining chip over the head of Sparta. Militarily, they were in a much more powerful position, holding dominance of the waters around Greece. Athens' security had also been greatly improved, this against their enemies as well as internal threats Against the Peloponnesians. The Athenians had nothing to worry about when it came to a naval threat, while on land, athens held very important hostages to prevent another Spartan invasion of Attica. Important hostages to prevent another Spartan invasion of Attica. With the neutralisation of a great deal of the enemy's military power would also come the increased security of the empire with it. Less likely revolts would occur due to no one being in a position to back them. However, smart and careful diplomatic negotiations would now need to take place for Athens to take full advantage of their current position if they wanted to bring an advantageous and successful conclusion to the war.
Speaker 1:Through the winter of 425-424, athens had been busy implementing their new imperial assessment and had been engaging in diplomatic talks with Sparta, who were looking to free their captured citizens. As we have covered, athens was able to somewhat stabilise its financial situation with the treasury for now, while no result would be achieved with the talks between Athens and Sparta. For Athens to agree to release their captives, a general peace to end the war would need to be agreed to. Though it appears Spartan attempts and negotiation did not go far enough for Athens to be satisfied, it seems clear that, given Sparta was not prepared to agree to a peace fully on Athenian terms and would continually return with counter offers shows that they still believe they had enough military power to potentially reverse their fortunes. So, with nothing agreed to, the Peloponnesian war would continue, with both sides looking to apply pressure in the right places to force the other to their will.
Speaker 1:With the changing of the year, in Athens would also come a new round of elections for the positions of general. It probably comes as no surprise that Cleon would find himself elected, given his popularity after having delivered on his promise of capturing the Spartans on Sphacteria in just 20 days. Not only this, but he had put himself in a leading position that would see one of the biggest upsets in the war thus far. The man who had proposed the initial plan, demosthenes, would also find himself as a general with the new elections, certainly benefiting from his popularity the previous year and his continued success at Pylos and Bacteria. Both Cleon and Demosthenes had an aggressive outlook when it came to pursuing the war against Sparta. They would also be joined by another general who would share a similar perspective Lamarcus. However, these men would also find they would have opposition within their ranks with the election of Nicias, nicostratus, autocles and Thucydides. This Thucydides would be the same man who would go on to write the history of the Peloponnesian War. That is our current major primary source in the series.
Speaker 1:However, with this change of generals, although the differing policies that existed in Athens were represented, it would be a more aggressive approach that held the most support from the people. This had been the fear of Nicias when debate over Demosthenes' request for reinforcements for Sphacteria was taking place in Athens. Cleon had helped with support for this plan and would take the leading role where he was able to see Athenian success. As we have said a number of times now, the success here was one of the biggest breakthroughs of the war so far. So it is understandable that the people of Athens were encouraged and saw they held a position of power, seeing that they could impose their will even further on Sparta. This meant that those with a more aggressive outlook would have an easier time convincing the people that they had to keep up the pressure and further daring military expeditions would be more palatable.
Speaker 1:Although Nicias and the other moderates held positions of power, given the current situation, they were unable to oppose these current outlooks, given the public support for an aggressive approach. This would be evident when one of the first actions of the 424 campaigning season the Moderates Nicias, nicostratus and Autocles were put in command of an invasion that was modelled off the aggressive move at Pylos the previous year. This trio of Moderates would sail off with 60 ships, 2,000 hoplites, a contingent of cavalry, along with some allies. Their mission was to capture the island of Kythera, just off the southern eastern tip of the Peloponnese. The idea of this invasion was to establish a fort in the same manner that had been done at Pylos. This appears to be part of their new, larger strategy to establish strong points around the Peloponnese where the Athenians could exert continued pressure on the Spartans and their allies. If Athens could establish a series of forts surrounding the Peloponnese, they would then be in a prime position to harass and demoralize their enemy, with them never being entirely sure where the next raid would be targeted. There would also be another added bonus to capturing Carthura, as it would economically damage Sparta. Carthura was the Spartans' base for trade with Egypt and Libya, while it had also traditionally served as a base to counter pirate activity around the Laconian coastline.
Speaker 1:Nicias would detach a small force of ten ships and would capture the coastal city of Scandia, while the main force would continue on the land and direct their attention at the main city of Caetheira. The Athenian force marched on the city once landing on the coast, and would find that the inhabitants were well aware of their approach. As the Athenians arrived outside the city, they found a force had assembled outside to meet them and defend the city. A battle would result between the two sides, where the defenders would hold firm for a time. Eventually, though, the Athenians would get the better of them, forcing them to rout and seek safety in the upper city. This initial clash was enough for the people of Kythera to seek terms with Nicias, and negotiations would begin. The defending commanders sought to submit themselves to the Athenians' discretion in return for their lives being guaranteed. Thucydides tells us that the surrender was arranged quickly due to some people of Kythera beginning peace talks with Nicias even before the commanders recognised their hopeless position. He also suggests that Kythera received favourable conditions due to some looking to make terms so early. This, supposedly, would prevent the Athenians from expelling the inhabitants of the island. With the successful capture of Kythera, nicias would have garrisons installed in the cities on the island and would turn his attention to raiding the Laconian coastline. His forces would then spend the next week laying waste to different coastal cities in the area.
Speaker 1:The Spartan response to the Athenians' actions was not decisive whatsoever. They expected further Athenian landings within their territory, and, given that they were unsure of where these might take place, small detachments of hoplites and other forces were sent off to establish garrisons to attempt to defend their coast. However, these Spartan garrisons remained on the defensive, and when the Athenians landed in the vicinity of these garrisons, they failed to engage the invaders due to believing their numbers were insufficient. Thucydides gives us reasoning behind the lacklustre Spartan response and their uncharacteristic behaviour. What they feared was that there might be a revolution against the government after the great and unexpected disaster at Bacteria, with Pylos and Kythera now in enemy hands and committed as they were on every side to a form of warfare where mobility was what counted and where attacks were difficult to guard against. Thus they raised a force of 400 cavalry and a force of archers, something quite at variance with their normal way of doing things. He then continues on with Then too, they were greatly disheartened by the many unpredictable blows of fortune which had fallen upon them. He then continues on with when they went into battle, they had no previous experience of misfortune, and so their morale collapsed, and they thought that whatever step they took would prove to be a mistake.
Speaker 1:With Kythera under Athenian control and their raids on the Lycanian coastline meeting no resistance, they now sought to move their efforts further north up the coast and threaten more Spartan possessions. The Athenian fleet now landed troops in the territory of Carneria, where they would make the city of Tharia their focus. Tharia was on the border with Argos and had been part of disputed territory between them and the Spartans. At the present time, tharia was under Spartan control and was the city they had settled the exiles of Aegina. This was due to the friendship they had shown to the Spartans during the crisis of the earthquake and helot revolt. For the Athenians, this was an attractive target, as an attack on Thyria and the surrounding areas might encourage the Argives into action, since this land had been long disputed, while the people of Aegina had long been seen as an enemy of Athens, with them assisting Sparta at every turn, even though they were supposed to have been subjects of Athens.
Speaker 1:News of the Athenian intentions of attacking Thorea had reached the people before the Athenian fleet had set sail, an effort had been made to construct fortifications on the coast nearby, but once word was received that the fleet was on its way these construction efforts were abandoned. It seems likely the works were nowhere near complete and would not be before the Athenians' arrival. The people withdrew back into the upper part of Theria. A Spartan garrison had also been present helping with the defensive works. The people of Aegina had requested that the Spartans also garrison within the city. However, its commander saw that this was a dangerous position and declined. Instead, the Spartans found some high ground to make camp and would remain there due to their small numbers.
Speaker 1:Soon after the defensive works had been abandoned, the Athenians landed on the coast and marched a mile inland to the city. Thucydides' account seems to suggest that the Athenians had no problem in taking Thorea, as he just records the lines. Meanwhile, the Athenians landed, moved forward at once with their whole army and captured Thorea. They burnt the city and looted the property inside. This now saw that Athens had taken control of another Spartan possession within their own territory.
Speaker 1:In the wake of the capture of both Kythera and Thyria, a number of inhabitants were taken captive. At Thyria, all those previously from Aegina that had not died in the fighting were rounded up and transported back to Athens where, due to the extreme hatred that existed in the fighting, were rounded up and transported back to Athens where, due to the extreme hatred that existed between the two, they were all put to death. Atharia although we are told the Spartan garrison remained inactive during the action. Its commander somehow had been wounded and was taken prisoner by the Athenians. He would also be transported to Athens, but would be spared and added to the Spartans who had captured its bacteria. As for Kythera, a number of important people were also rounded up, though they were instead transported and delivered to various islands in the Aegean for safekeeping as hostages. As for the rest of the inhabitants of Kythera, they were allowed to remain in possession of their lands, but were now required to pay Athens a tribute of four talents. As we had pointed out earlier, caithera had been afforded lenient terms due to their early surrender.
Speaker 1:So, as we can see, the years 425 and 424 were a great shift in fortune for Athens. The early part of the Peloponnesian War seemed to be one setback after another, while Athens was forced to react to what was developing around them. Year after year, they sat behind their walls witnessing the destruction of their farmlands, with an enemy marching uninterrupted. On top of this, taking place each year, athens had to deal with the political blowback from a growing frustration of visible inaction when it came to many people's livelihood being destroyed, it had appeared Athens tried to calm tensions with it, sending out limited operations directed at the Peloponnese to show its people they were hitting back. However, to make the early years even harsher, the Athenians would be subjected to the plague for a number of years, inflicting great suffering on those within the defensive walls of Athens, though the polis would hold firm and continue the war where further stresses would be encountered, such as the members of their empire revolting and the treasury running low on funds due to the many unforeseen events that had to be dealt with.
Speaker 1:However, there appeared to have been a slow shifting in policy towards waging the war after Pericles had died from the plague. Early on, it seemed to be business as usual, but as new figures rose up into important positions and new factions formed, the assembly was exposed to new ideas and strategies in pursuing the war. This would see Athens take on a more aggressive approach, targeting locations in areas of Peloponnesian influence, forcing them to respond. A great focus was placed on the regions around the Corinthian Gulf. Part of the reason for this was due to Athens' position at Neopactus, but it would also disrupt Peloponnesian trade and access into the region. This focus in the west would then seem to be escalated with Athens' first expedition to Sicily. Again, there appeared to be a number of motivations for this move, some looking to secure Athens' position by not seeing a large potential ally enter into the Peloponnesian League, while some reasons seemed more aggressive in nature, targeting the economic stability of Sparta and its allies. However, even these actions had not shifted the advantage one way or another as each year passed.
Speaker 1:But everything would change with the reinforcing fleet sent to help bring a quick resolution on Sicily, although the fleet would arrive too late to reverse Athens' fortunes there. They would instead take part in an action that would change the dynamics of the war in a way yet not seen. The assumption had been that all was going well in Sicily, so the commanders had other objectives to deal with on their way. The main focus here was to assist Caesarea with the flare-up of the civil war. Once again, though Demosthenes had been granted use of the fleet for purposes he also saw important, he was able to see that an Athenian fort was built in Peloponnesian territory, at Pylos. The reaction to this action would end up leading to Spartan and Peloponnesian land and naval forces being deployed to the area. This in turn led to the Athenians reacting with the return of the main part of the fleet. The subsequent action would then end up leading to a sizable Spartan force being isolated on the island of Bacteria, just off the coast.
Speaker 1:In the wake of the military and diplomatic actions, athens was able to force the surrender of these men, where they would be taken into captivity. This was a point where Athens' fortunes in the war and the conflict's dynamics changed. As we have said many times, this development shocked the Greek world, as the reputation of the Spartan hoplites were that, militarily, they were no match for any other force, while surrender was not even thought of as an option. These assumptions amongst the Greek cities, whether warranted or not, would now see this reputation shattered. For Athens, they would be encouraged to start pursuing a more aggressive policy, with them now directing operations against other areas of the Peloponnesian coast in the following year.
Speaker 1:These missions had a similar objective. In mind of what had been conducted at Pylos, athens was looking to establish fortified locations around the Peloponnese where they could at will raid and ravage Spartan territory as well as their allies. This would also have the result of controlling the waters around the Peloponnese. This was to see the pressure kept up against Sparta after suffering their great blow as bacteria. This sort of strategy had, only the previous year, been questioned by the moderates, who were looking to bring Sparta to the negotiation table. Though, with the great success of 425, the people of Athens were now encouraged to take a more aggressive approach. In the eyes of Cleon and those with a similar policy outlook, if they could keep the pressure up, athens would achieve a peace that would be much to their advantage. Negotiations were unfolding, but no resolution had been achieved yet. If Sparta were pushed into an even more hopeless position, then Athens could come out of the Peloponnesian War as the most powerful state within Greece, convincing Sparta. Their time had now passed In Sparta.
Speaker 1:It is hard for us to know what was truly unfolding within the government we have already seen before the war and through the years after its breakout. We are not given a clear picture of what was unfolding. We are just led to interpret their actions and responses to events and situations. In the case of Secteria and the actions of the next year, thucydides does tell us that Sparta had become indecisive and somewhat docile when it came to responding to the Athenian actions during 424, with him also telling us the Spartan government had become concerned about revolution and Sparta breaking out. It's not clear how he would have known the goings-on of what was happening politically within Sparta, but he at least was able to make an assessment on the Spartans' response taking place on the ground against Athens. It was this year he was also elected as one of the generals, so may have had access to more information.
Speaker 1:However, the quote I related from Thucydides earlier about Sparta in 424 BC probably isn't too far from the truth. Sphacteria had been a huge shock to them, and they were scrambling diplomatically to try and come to a resolution so that their precious Spartites could be returned. Sparta, probably more than any other city-state that we know of, placed a great importance on this class of men in their society. Much of their constitution and how their society had been running for generations rested on the idea of the Spartan citizen. The ones that had been killed on Sphacteria were already a blow to them, but if they were to lose the rest, this would potentially set back their society a generation or two. It also seems likely that the different factions within Sparta were now also in a great debate with one another over what path to take, though we don't get any insight into these matters. If anything, it appears a sort of paralysis had taken hold in Sparta, given the picture of Spartan actions Thucydides presents to us of their response to the Athenian incursions. Diplomatic talks would continue with Sparta, though no resolution would yet be achieved that was acceptable to both sides. Sparta would remain quiet and on the defensive for the rest of 424, though its allies would find themselves now the focus of Athenian actions for the remainder of the year. It appears, with the situation Sparta was now in, athens was looking to apply pressure to its allies in the hope of seeing the Peloponnesian League fall apart and create an even more unfavourable situation for Sparta as negotiations continued.
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